Roman numeral

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Roman numerals are the symbols used in a system of numerical notation based on the ancient Roman system. The symbols are I, V, X, L, C, D, and M, standing respectively for 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000.

Examples of the use of Roman numerals today include the denotation of book chapters, the title of each year’s National Football League Super Bowl as well as the titles of Summer and Winter Olympics, and the marking of hours on clock faces.

In the Roman numeral system, the symbols I, V, X, L, C, D, and M stand respectively for 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 in the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. A symbol placed after another of equal or greater value adds its value. A symbol placed before one of greater value subtracts its value. A bar placed over a number multiplies its value by 1,000.

As in all such matters, the origin of the Roman numeral system of numerical notation is obscure, although the changes in their forms since the 3rd century BCE are well known. Roman numerals were likely developed as a result of a need for a common method of counting in order to better conduct trade.

Despite the impracticality of using Roman numerals for mathematical calculations, which led to the widespread use of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system we know today, some people do still argue for the importance of teaching Roman numerals in schools. Proponents believe that Roman numerals have enduring cultural relevance, as seen in their continued use in sporting event titles and book chapters. Learn more.

Roman numeral, any of the symbols used in a system of numerical notation based on the ancient Roman system. The symbols are I, V, X, L, C, D, and M, standing respectively for 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 in the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. A symbol placed after another of equal or greater value adds its value—e.g., II = 1 + 1 = 2 and LVIII = 50 + 5 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 58. Usually only three identical symbols can be used consecutively; to express numbers beginning with a 4 or a 9, a symbol is placed before one of greater value to subtract its value—e.g., IV = −1 + 5 = 4, XC = −10 + 100 = 90, and MCMLXXXIX = 1,000 −100 + 1,000 + 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 −1 +10 = 1,989. The exceptions are 4,000, which is sometimes written as MMMM, and clocks, which usually display 4 as IIII. A bar called a vinculum placed over a number multiplies its value by 1,000.

Below is a table of Arabic numerals and their Roman numeral equivalents.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica This article was most recently revised and updated by Erik Gregersen.

‘XX’? But I Hardly Know Her!

Don’t worry, the colleague you’ve never met isn’t trying to kiss you over email.

Valentine’s Day is over , but we’re still receiving an endless stream of kisses: passed along in emails and texts like months-old mints nestled at the bottom of our bags, doled out inconsequentially to our tax guys and the work colleagues we’ve never actually met.

Symbolized by two lowercase X’s or a lone capital at the close of a message, kisses have become the trivial signoff du jour for a subset of Americans, a spicier take on “All best.” Hugs, their more sober partner, written simply as “o,” have been kicked aside after failing to make it big in the merciless world of internet parlance.

Ending digital notes with these shorthand kisses is especially popular today among people who work in industries like fashion or public relations, which lean female and are, perhaps, less likely to be navigating the muddy waters of #MeToo. The x’s manufacture closeness and soften bad news. To leave them out is to risk coming across wooden and cold, if not a psychopath .

Dana Schwartz, the co-founder of the Hours Agency, a fashion public relations firm in New York, has long been a proponent of signing work-related emails with “xx,” finding that it makes the messages more friendly and conversational. In the last few years, she’s noticed more and more people in her orbit using “xx,” too.

“Email itself has changed, with shorter and less-structured notes back and forth becoming more common,” Ms. Schwartz said. “This has allowed quick expressions like ‘xx’ to gain popularity and take on new meaning,” more gratitude than romance.

But how did we land here? Sending virtual kisses to people with whom we’d never really want to lock lips?

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